Substance according to Descartes …
With proving the existence of God, he has established God as the primary substance of the universe.
However, he observes that there are two distinct creations in the world. This dichotomy is evident from our own experience of the world.
Apart from the Primary substance — which is absolute — they are relative substances that has been created by God— Mind and Body. Mind and Body are independent of each other and can be recognised only through their attributes :- Consciousness and Extension respectively. Mental exercise is not limited by time and space, while the body is fixed within time and space.
Experience of reality without these fundamental substances is impossible
This is Descartes Mind-Body Dualism.
But if they are independent of each other, how are they working together?
He proposes his theory of interactionism. By this theory, both Mind and Body interact via the Pineal Gland located in the brain.
He gives the analogy of the Horse and the Rider in this regard — the rider spurs on the horse to run faster by its own energy. Same way the mind only commands bodily movements without imputing its own energy.
Descartes was a pioneer in establishing a mathematical method of philosophical thinking and by extension freedom of thought. Further, he began from thought without presuppositions. For this reason, he has been rightly held as the Father of Modern Western Philosophy.
It is obvious that as all eminent philosophers, even Descartes wasn’t immune from critics.
Some Valid Criticisms
- It is not conceivable how a non-physical thing can cause physical effects.
- Empirically, it is noticed that changes in the mind can cause changes in the body and vice-versa. Therefore, independence of mind and body can be questioned.
- There is no evidence that physical and non-physical can interact with each other.
- The way Descartes derives at conclusions completely neglects emotions, feelings and other non-rationale aspects of human experience
- Descartes is only concerned about obtaining individualistic knowledge, and completely ignores social and political context in which knowledge is produced and used.
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Benedict Spinoza
